Over 50% of elementary and 25% of middle school non-proficient readers showed evidence of underdeveloped visual skills while reading.
Research Summary
The study examined whether visual skills differ between students with high and low reading performance. Using data from a large nationally representative sample, high and low reading performance groups were created based on standardized English language arts/reading assessments and a reading efficiency assessment. Stanford Taylor Foundation (STF) researchers then evaluated 1,042 reading eye movement recordings from 369 students for evidence of underdeveloped visual skills. STF researchers were blinded to students’ reading-group assignments.
| Grades: | 2, 4, 6, 8 |
| Participants: | n = 369 |
| Measure: | Visagraph Eye Movement Recording System |
| Publication: | Thirty-second Annual Meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, Calgary, Canada (2025) |
| Authors: | John Ferrara, M.Ed.; Alexandra Spichtig, Ph.D.; Nancy Brower,J.D.; and Kristin Gehsmann, Ed.D. |
Results showed that 38% of low-performing readers demonstrated evidence of underdeveloped visual skills, compared with only 4% of high-performing readers. When the results were examined by grade level, a clear pattern emerged. Over half of low-performing elementary readers (54% in Grade 2, 52% in Grade 4) had evidence of underdeveloped visual skills compared to one-quarter of low-performing middle school readers (27% in Grade 6, 24% in Grade 8). In contrast, evidence of underdeveloped visual skills was uncommon among high-performing readers across all grade levels, ranging from 2% to 6%.
These findings indicate a relationship between visual skills and reading performance. The results also suggest that visual skill development is an important consideration in supporting reading proficiency, and that differentiated instructional approaches that incorporate visual skill development are needed for elementary and middle school students.